Nanotechnology for drug delivery systems in colorectal cancer: Recent developments and future prospects

Table 3 Summary of inorganic nanomaterial-based in vitro and in vivo studies in colorectal cancer

Nanoformulation	Compound/system	Model	Key findings	Ref.
QDs	Carbon quantum dots-silver heterostructure (CQD/Ag)	In vitro (HCT116 cells)	Exhibited potent anticancer activity via Akt signaling with minimal toxicity to normal cells	Mishra et al[110], 2023
QDs	QD-P (PLAC-1-targeted quantum dots)	In vitro (HCT-29, HCT-116, LS-180 cells)	Demonstrated theranostic potential for detection and targeted treatment of PLAC-1-positive CRC cells	Haider et al[112], 2023
IONPs	5-FU-loaded IONPs with magnetic hyperthermia	In vivo (HT-29 tumor-bearing mice)	Showed significant tumor inhibition when combined with magnetic hyperthermia	Dabaghi et al[116], 2021
IONPs	5-FU-loaded IONPs	In vitro (Caco-2 cells)	Optimized formulation (IONP:5-FU = 1.5:1) showed highest antitumor activity	Predoi et al[117], 2023
IONPs	Oleic acid-modified superparamagnetic IONPs and PLL (OPPL nanodrug)	In vitro and in vivo (CRC models)	Enhanced tumor accumulation, increased cytotoxicity, and suppressed tumor growth	Li et al[118], 2024
CNTs	ADP@SWNT/TNFα	In vitro (HCT116 cells) and in vivo (tumor-bearing mice)	Suppressed tumor growth and metastasis; activity enhanced under near-infrared irradiation	Chen et al[125], 2022
CNTs	CNTs combined with 5-FU, tacrine, and ethionamide	In vitro (HT-29 cells)	Improved anticancer activity of both chemotherapeutic and repurposed drugs	Abreu et al[127], 2023
AuNPs	Cetuximab-conjugated AuNPs	In vitro (HT-29 cells)	Enhanced cytotoxicity and altered phenotypic behavior of CRC cells	El Hallal et al[136], 2021
AgNPs	Citrate-coated (AgNP-cit) and EG6OH-coated (AgNP-EG6OH)	In vitro (LoVo and HT-29 cells)	EG6OH-coated AgNPs showed minimal toxicity toward CRC cells and primary colonocytes	Barbalinardo et al[139], 2025

QDs: Quantum dots; Akt: Protein kinase B; CRC: Colorectal cancer; IONPs: Iron oxide nanoparticles; CNTs: Carbon nanotubes; AuNPs: Gold nanoparticles; AgNPs: Silver nanoparticles; 5-FU: 5-fluorouracil; PLAC-1: Placenta-specific protein 1.