Nanotechnology for drug delivery systems in colorectal cancer: Recent developments and future prospects

Table 1 Influences of nanoparticle physicochemical properties on immune modulation in colorectal cancer immunotherapy

Physicochemical property	Parameter range	Immune-correlated effects in CRC	Ref.
Size	4-14 nm	M1 macrophage polarization through cellular uptake efficiency and lysosomal stress	[56]
	10-100 nm	Efficient lymphatic drainage and lymph node accumulation	[54]
	750-1000 nm	M1 macrophage polarization through membrane interaction	[56]
Shape	Spherical	Higher cellular internalization efficiency	[60]
	Spiky	Physical activation of innate immunity	[61]
Surface charge	Positive	Enhanced cellular uptake; increased immunogenicity	[62]
	Negative	Efficient lymph node accumulation; longer circulation	[63]
Elasticity	Soft	Activate Piezo1; reprogram TAMs	[64]
Surface funtionalization	PEGylation	Reprogram protein corona; extended circulation half-life	[68]
	Glycosylation	Promoted M1 polarization of macrophages through interaction with TLR4 receptors	[69]
	Cell membrane coating	Homologous targeting to CRC cells; immune evasion and enhanced tumor immunogenicity	[70,71]

CRC: Colorectal cancer; TAMs: Tumor-associated macrophages; PEG: Polyethylene glycol; TLR4: Toll-like receptor 4.