Interplay between viral infections and gut microbiota dysbiosis: Mechanisms and therapeutic potential

Table 1 Human viruses interact with bacteria either directly (via bacterial products that facilitate infection) or indirectly (through host environment changes that favor bacterial colonization)

Viruses	Bacterial partner(s)	Mechanistic basis	Ref.
Direct interactions
Murine norovirus	E. cloacae, enteric microbiota	Bacterial histo-blood group antigen analogs support persistent viral infection in the gut	[8,9]
Influenza virus	Staphylococcus aureus	Bacterial proteases activate viral hemagglutinin through cleavage	[10]
Rotavirus	Gut microbiota (e.g., Escherichia coli, Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron)	Bacterial factors promote viral infectivity while reducing antibody neutralization	[11]
Reovirus T3SA+	Enteric bacteria (Escherichia coli, etc.)	Bacterial lipopolysaccharide mediates enhanced viral binding and replication efficiency	[12]
HIV	Mycobacterium tuberculosis	Mycobacterial components enhance HIV transcriptional activity	[13]
Indirect interactions
Adenovirus	S. pneumoniae	Enhances bacterial attachment to respiratory epithelial cells	[14]
Rhinovirus	Respiratory pathogens	Increases the expression of host cell adhesion molecules for bacterial binding	[15]
Measles virus	Multiple opportunistic pathogens	Systemic immune suppression facilitates secondary bacterial infections	[16,17]
Herpesviruses	Porphyromonas gingivalis, Bacteroides forsythus (now Tannerella forsythia), Campylobacter rectus	Viral immunosuppression enables bacterial colonization of the oral mucosa	[18]
Parainfluenza virus	Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae	Viral infection increases bacterial adhesion to the respiratory epithelium	[19,20]

HIV: Human immunodeficiency virus.