Esmolol alleviates lipopolysaccharide-induced intestinal injuries by enhancing autophagy through the AMPK/mTOR/ULK1 pathway

Figure 1 Schematic of the study design. A: Rats in the Sham group continuously received normal saline (NS) for 3, 6, 12, or 24 hours after surgery; B: Rats in the lipopolysaccharide (LPS) group continuously received NS for 3, 6, 12, or 24 hours, and LPS was administered 30 minutes after the start of the NS infusion; C: Rats in the LPS + ES group continuously received ES for 12 or 24 hours, and LPS was administered 30 minutes after the start of ES and LPS treatment; D: Rats in the LPS + 3-methyladenine (3-MA) and LPS + rapamycin (RAPA) groups continuously received with NS for 12 or 24 hours as well as an intraperitoneal injection of 3-MA or RAPA, followed by an intraperitoneal injection of LPS 30 minutes after the start of the NS infusion. 3-MA: 3-methyladenine; ES: Esmolol; NS: Normal saline; RAPA: Rapamycin; LPS: Lipopolysaccharide.