Ultra-processed foods: Implications for gastrointestinal health

Table 6 Studies with a negative association between ultra-processed foods and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease/obesity/metabolic syndrome

Ref.	Design & population (n)	UPFs assessment method	Outcomes
Magalhães et al[103], 2022, Brazil	Prospective, n = 896	Semi-quantitative 83-item FFQ, NOVA classification	UPFs consumption: No association with MetS
Barbosa et al[104], 2023, Brazil	Cross-sectional, n = 895	24-hour dietary recall, NOVA classification, NOVA score	Higher UPFs consumption: Not associated with a ↑ prevalence of MetS
Nasreddine et al[105], 2018, Lebanon	Community-based survey, n = 302	Semi-quantitative 80-item FFQ NOVA classification	Ultra-processed dietary pattern: No association with MetS (OR 1.11, 95%CI: 0.26-4.65)
Asma et al[106], 2019, Malaysia	Cross-sectional, n = 200	24-hour dietary recall NOVA classification	UPFs consumption: Not associated with BMI, WC, and% body fat
Adams and White[74], 2015, United Kingdom	Cross-sectional, n = 2174	Food diary and UPF	UPFs consumption: No association with markers of body weight

BMI: Body mass index; CI: Confidence interval; FFQ: Food frequency questionnaire; Mets: Metabolic syndrome; OR: Odds ratio; UPF: Ultra-processed food; WC: Waist circumference.