Ultra-processed foods: Implications for gastrointestinal health

Table 2 Alternative classification systems for ultra-processed foods[1,4-7]

Classification system	Developed by/source	Basis of classification	Key features
NOVA	Monteiro et al[1], Brazil (FAO, 2018)	Extent and purpose of food processing	Categorizes foods into 4 groups; emphasizes the health risks of UPFs
UNC system	University of North Carolina	Processing categories based on ingredient lists and barcodes	Categorizes > 12000 United States foods from NHANES; focuses on industrial processing
IFPRI classification	International Food Policy Research Institute	Technological processes and ingredient function	Emphasizes processing techniques like extrusion, hydrolysis
EU FP7 (Food4Me Project)	European Commission	Combining processing level with nutritional and matrix properties	Assess the impact of the food matrix and nutrient profile
EPIC-Soft/GloboDiet	European Prospective Investigation into Cancer	Harmonized food description for dietary recall	Focuses on preparation and preservation methods

NHANES: National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey; UPFs: Ultra-processed food; FAO: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.