Comparative evaluation of three traditional herbal formulas on gastrointestinal motility in a mouse model of cold stress-induced dyspepsia

Figure 6 Alterations in short-chain fatty acids, and related mechanisms. A: Fecal levels of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), including acetic acid, propionic acid, and butyric acid, were measured by high-performance liquid chromatography; B and C: Messenger RNA (mRNA) expression of SCFA receptors G protein-coupled receptor 41 (B) and G protein-coupled receptor 43 (C) was determined by quantitative polymerase chain reaction; D and E: Intestinal glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) levels (D), GLP-1 mRNA expression (E) were compared among groups; F and G: Gene expression of inflammatory cytokines tumor necrosis factor-α (F) and interleukin-1β (G) was assessed. ^aP < 0.05, compared with the normal group; ^bP < 0.01, compared with the normal group; ^cP < 0.05, compared with the normal group; ^dP < 0.01, compared with the cold stress group (n = 4 or 8). YT: Yijung-tang; ST: Shihosogan-tang; PS: Pyeongwi-san; CS: Cold stress; MO: Mosapride; GAPDH: Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase; GPR41: G protein-coupled receptor 41; GPR43: G protein-coupled receptor 43; GLP-1: Glucagon-like peptide-1; TNF-α: Tumor necrosis factor-alpha; IL-1β: Interleukin-1 beta.