Management of inflammatory bowel disease with Clostridium difficile infection

Table 2 Risk factors for Clostridium difficile infection in inflammatory bowel disease

Ref.	Sampling time frame	Setting	Diagnosis method	Identified risk factors
				HOST	ENVIRONMENT
Razik et al[44] (2016)	2010-2013	Inpatient	PCR	Non-ileal CD	Hospitalisation for CDI; recent antibiotic use; biologic therapy; 5-ASA; Steroids
McCurdy et al[54] (2016)	2005-2011	Inpatient and outpatient	PCR	CMV infection	N/A
Seril et al[45] (2014)	2010-2013	Inpatient and outpatient	PCR for Toxin B	Post-surgery mechanical intestinal complications; low serum immunoglobulin level	None identified
Regnault et al[30] (2014)	2008-2010	Inpatient	Stool culture on selective medium + cytotoxicity assay +/- toxigenic culture	None identified	NSAIDs
Connelly et al[52] (2014)	N/R	N/R	PCR for Toxin A gene	IL-4 gene associated SNP rs2243250	Not studied
Ananthakrishnan et al[102] (2014)	1998-2010	Inpatient	N/R	Low vitamin D concentration	Not studied
Ananthakrishnan et al[56] (2013)	N/R	Inpatient and outpatient	ELISA for Toxin A/B	Female sex; pancolitis; IBD-related SNPs	Protective : Anti-TNF therapy
Monaghan et al[53] (2013)	2009-2012	N/R	Toxigenic culture	Impaired ability to generate: toxin-specific antibody, memory B-cell responses	Not studied
Li et al[34] (2013)	2010-2011	Outpatient	PCR for Toxin B	None identified	Recent hospitalization
Masclee et al[47] (2013)	2009-2010	Outpatient	PCR for C. difficile and Toxins A/B	None identified	None identified
Kaneko et al[46] (2011)	2006-2009	Inpatient and outpatient	ELISA for Toxin A	None identified	None identified
Kariv et al[43] (2011)	2000-2006	Inpatient and outpatient	EIA for Toxin A/B	Recent surgery	Recent antibiotic use; recent hospitalization
Ricciardi et al[27] (2009)	1993-2003	Inpatient	N/R	Colonic involvement	Not studied
Schneeweiss et al[49] (2009)	2001-2006	Inpatient and outpatient	N/R	Not studied	Corticosteroid initiation
Nguyen et al[17] (2008)	1998-2004	Inpatient	N/R	Colonic involvement	Not studied
				Comorbidity
Issa et al[24] (2007)	2005	Inpatient	ELISA for Toxin A/B	Colonic involvement	Maintenance immunomodulator use
Rodemann et al[16] (2007)	1998-2004	Inpatient	Cell cytotoxic culture	Age	Not studied
			2002 onwards C. difficile Toxin A/B immunoassay	Comorbidity
Mylonaki et al[23] (2004)	1997-2001	Inpatient	ELISA for Toxin A/B	None identified	Recent antibiotic use

CDI: Clostridium difficile infection; rCDI: Recurrent Clostridium difficile infection; IBD: Inflammatory bowel disease; UC: Ulcerative colitis; CD: Crohn’s Disease; IPAA: Ileal anal-pouch anastomosis; CMV: Cytomegalovirus; CF: Cystic fibrosis; EIA: Enzyme immunoassay; ELISA: Enzyme linked immunosorbent assay; NSAID: Non-steroidal anti-inflammatories PCR: Polymerase chain reaction; N/R: Not reported.