Immunotherapy in human colorectal cancer: Challenges and prospective

Table 1 Gene mutations in human colorectal cancer

Pathways	Cell cycle	WNT	MAPK	TGF	P53	PI3K-Akt	Apoptosis
Genes	MLH1[71]	APC[71]	KRAS[72]	SMAD4[73]	P53[74]	PTEN[75]	DCC[76]
	MSH2[71]	CTNNB1[77]	PLA2G2A[78]			NRAS[79]	BAX[80]
	MSH6[81]	MCC[82]	PTPN12[83]			PIK3CA[84]
	RAD54B[85]	AXIN2[86]				FGFR3[87]
	CCND1[88]	ARID1A				AKT1[89]
	BUB1B[90]	SOX9
	AURKA[91]
	EP300[92]

MLH1: MutL homolog 1; MSH2: MutS homolog 2; MSH6: MutS homolog 6; RAD54B: RAD54 homolog B (S. Cerevisiae); CCND1: Cyclin D1; BUB1B: BUB1 mitotic checkpoint serine/threonine kinase B; AURKA: Aurora kinase A; EP300: E1A binding protein P300; PC: Adenomatous polyposis coli; CTNNB1: Catenin (cadherin-associated protein), Beta 1, 88 kDa; MCC: Mutated in colorectal cancers; AXIN2: Axin 2; ARID1A: AT rich interactive domain 1A (SWI-Like); SOX9: SRY (sex determining region Y)-Box 9; KRAS: Kirsten rat sarcoma viral oncogene homolog; PLA2G2A: Phospholipase A2, group IIA (platelets, synovial fluid); PTPN12: Protein tyrosine phosphatase, non-receptor type 12; SMAD4: SMAD family member 4; P53: Tumor protein P53; PTEN: Phosphatase and tensin homolog; NRAS: Neuroblastoma RAS viral (V-Ras) oncogene homolog; PIK3CA: Phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate 3-kinase, catalytic subunit alpha; FGFR3: Fibroblast growth factor receptor 3; AKT1: V-Akt murine thymoma viral oncogene homolog 1; DCC: DCC netrin 1 receptor; BAX: BCL2-associated X protein.