Autophagy and microRNA in hepatitis B virus-related hepatocellular carcinoma

Figure 1 How hepatitis B virus infection induces autophagy. Hepatitis B virus (HBV) induces autophagy mainly through HBx protein or small surface protein (Small HBs)-related mechanism. The former (HBx) induces autophagy by the following routes: (1): Increases mRNA expression of Beclin 1 through transcriptional regulation; (2): Activates enzymatic activity of PI3KC3 to enhance autophagosome formation; (3): Activates DAPK to trigger autophagy in a Beclin 1-PI3KC3-dependent manner. The latter (SHBs) triggers ER stress to induce autophagy. DAPK: Death-associated protein kinase.