Artificial intelligence in endoscopy: The challenges and future directions

Table 1 Examples of deep learning-based approaches in application of medical tasks

Ref.	Medical domain	Tasks
Muehlematter et al[7]	Skin	Diagnosis of skin cancer
United States Food and Drug Administration[8]	Electrocardiogram	Detection of heart attack
Pereira et al[9]	Retinopathy	Detection of diabetics
Gao et al[10]	Pulmonary CT images	Detection of tuberculosis types and severity
Sharib et al[11], Ali et al[12]	Endoscopy	Detection of artefact.
Gao et al[14]	CT Brain images	Classification of Alzheimer’s disease
Gao et al[15,16]	Pulmonary CT images	Analysis of multi-drug resistance
Gao et al[13]	Ultrasound	Classification of 3D echocardiographic video images
Wang et al[19], Ouyang et al[20]	Chest CT	Diagnosis of COVID-19
Oh et al[21], Wang et al[22], Waheed et al[23]	Chest X-Ray	Diagnosis of COVID-19
Everson et al[33], Horie et al[34], Ghatwary et al[35], Ohmori et al[38]	Endoscopy	Still image based cancer detection for 2 classes (normal vs abnormal)
de Groof et al[32], Everson et al[35], He et al[41], Guo et al[42]	Endoscopy	Video detection of SCC in real time
Gao et al[44], Tomita et al[45]	Endoscopy	Explainable AI for early detection of SCC

CT: Computed tomography; AI: Artificial intelligence; SCC: Squamous cell cancer; COVID-19: Coronavirus disease 2019.