Artificial intelligence in autoimmune pancreatitis: Differentiating immunoglobulin G4-related pancreatitis from pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma

Table 2 Reported diagnostic performance of published artificial intelligence studies for differentiating autoimmune pancreatitis or mass-forming pancreatitis from pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma

Ref.	Scope	Cohort (cases vs PDAC; total)	Modality	AI method	Validation	Performance	Key limitation
Park et al[6]	AIP vs PDAC	89 AIP/93 PDAC; n = 182	CT	Radiomics + random forest	Hold-out test	AUC 0.975; Sn 89.7%; Sp 100%	Single-center; no external validation
E et al[7]	Focal AIP vs PDAC	45/51; n = 96	Multiphasic CT	Radiomics	No independent validation	Sn 93.3%; Sp 96.1%; AUC NR	Small; single-center
Li et al[8]	Focal AIP vs PDAC	42/55; n = 97 (matched)	CT	Radiomics (LASSO score)	Whole matched cohort	AUC 0.97; Sn 95.2%; Sp 92.7%	Optimism risk; no independent validation
Lu et al[9]	Focal AIP vs PDAC	32/64; n = 96	CT	Radiomics nomogram	5-fold CV + hold-out test	Test AUC 0.83; Sn/Sp NR	Small; no external validation
Liu et al[10]	AIP vs PDAC	48/64; n = 112	Dual-time 18F-FDG PET/CT	Radiomics + SVM	Nested cross-validation	AUC 0.967; Sn 85.3%; Sp 96.0%	CV only; needs dual-time PET/CT
Shiraishi et al[11]	Focal AIP vs PDAC	28/77; n = 105	MRI (DWI/ADC)	Radiomics + SVM	Cross-validation	AUC 0.962; Sn/Sp NR	Small AIP subgroup; single-center
Anai et al[23]	Focal AIP vs PDAC	20/30; n = 50	CT texture	Texture ML (SVM) + reader study	3-fold CV	SVM AUC 0.920; Sn 100%; Sp 75%; readers 0.83-> 0.91	Very small; single-center
Ziegelmayer et al[20]	AIP vs PDAC	44/42; n = 86	CT (portal venous)	Deep CNN features	Shuffle-split CV + 20% hold-out	AUC 0.90; Sn 0.89; Sp 0.83	Small; high variance; no external validation
Zhang et al[19]	AIP vs PDAC	n =111	18F-FDG PET/CT	Radiomics + SVM	Nested cross-validation	AUC 0.93; Sn 0.86; Sp 0.84	CV only; cohort breakdown unclear
Ye et al[22]	Mass-forming pancreatitis vs PDAC	78/120; n = 198	CT	Radiomics + clinical	Hold-out test	Test AUC 0.906; Sn/Sp NR	Not AIP-specific; single-center
Qu et al[24]	Mass-forming pancreatitis vs PDAC	54/201; n = 255	CT	Radiomics + clinical	Internal validation	Validation AUC 0.880; Sn/Sp NR	Not AIP-specific; internal validation only

Performance refers to the best-performing model on the validation or test set where available; several studies reported the area under the curve only. Mass-forming pancreatitis studies are included for context and are not specific to autoimmune pancreatitis. AI: Artificial intelligence; AIP: Autoimmune pancreatitis; PDAC: Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma; CT: Computed tomography; MRI: Magnetic resonance imaging; DWI: Diffusion-weighted imaging; ADC: Apparent diffusion coefficient; PET: Positron emission tomography; FDG: Fluorodeoxyglucose; SVM: Support-vector machine; CNN: Convolutional neural network; CV: Cross-validation; AUC: Area under the curve; Sn: Sensitivity; Sp: Specificity; NR: Not reported.