Artificial intelligence in prognostication and treatment response modeling in advanced hepatocellular carcinoma

Table 2 Prognostic vs predictive modeling in advanced hepatocellular carcinoma

Feature	Prognostic model	Predictive model
Core question	What is the patient’s outcome risk?	Does the patient benefit more from treatment A vs B?
Treatment consideration	Ignored or uniform	Central to model structure
Typical dataset	Single-treatment cohort	Multi-treatment or counterfactual framework
Key bias risk	Overfitting	Confounding by indication
Statistical requirement	Discrimination and calibration	Causal inference methods (propensity modeling, counterfactual ML, uplift models)
Clinical utility	Risk stratification	Therapy selection guidance

ML: Machine learning.