Clinical use of augmented reality, mixed reality, three-dimensional-navigation and artificial intelligence in liver surgery

Table 1 Augmented and mixed reality in open liver surgery

Ref.	No of procedures	Technique	Key outcomes
Onda et al[11], 2013	2 liver resections	Open stereo-scope, AR created on a passive -polarizing 3D display	Open scope technique feasible, 10 hr pre-op image preparation, 1 h intraoperative setup, 1-2 min for registration process
Okamoto et al[12], 2013	2 HPB procedures	Video see-through display	Position of virtual 3D model and organ image closely corresponded, registration error 5 mm
Ntourakis et al[13], 2016	3 patients with 4 disappeared CRLM	Open stereo-scope, AR created on video screen, registration performed by an additional computer technician	AR helped to detect disappeared all metastases, R0, planned security margin 1 cm, registration time within 6 min
Tang et al, 2017[14]	1 patient	AR created on a tablet pc as see-trough display	Feasible, improved vision compared to video based AR system
Yasuda et al[15], 2018	7 patients including minor and major liver resections	Open scope technique combined with AR created on a tablet pc with infrared sensor	Tablet pc method feasible, registration error 1-11 mm
Saito et al[18], 2020	2 HPB procedures	3D hologram on head mounted display	Feasible, orientation improved, multiple surgeons used the technique at the same time, hologram reduced task load

CRLM: Colorectal liver metastasis; HPB: Hepato-biliary; AR: Augmented reality; 3D: Three-dimensional; R0: R0 Resection.