Chinese Association for the Study of Pain: Expert consensus on chronic postsurgical pain

Table 1 Risk factors for chronic postsurgical pain[7-14]

Risk factors for CPSP[7-14]
Preoperative factors	Preoperative chronic pain; psychological factors (depression, anxiety, pain catastrophizing and fear of surgery); smoking; younger age; female gender; genetic susceptibility
Surgical factors	Type and site of surgery (amputation, breast cancer, thoracotomy, hysterectomy, inguinal hernia repair, cesarean section); surgical technique (open surgery > laparoscopy and thoracoscopy, traditional hernia repair > tension-free hernia repair); extensive use of electric knife; long operation time; infection on incision site; nerve damage or compression
Postoperative factors	Severe acute postoperative pain; opioid use (high doses of opioids can cause hyperalgesia and may be related to NMDA receptor activation); neuropathic pain (early postoperative neuropathic pain is prone to chronic); complication (cardiovascular, respiratory, renal/gastrointestinal, wound, thrombotic or neural)

CPSP: Chronic post-surgical pain; NMDA: N methyl D aspartate.