Efficacy and safety of regional blocks and multimodal analgesia in psychiatric patients at risk of opioid misuse: A systematic review

Table 3 Characteristics of observational studies

Ref.	Design	Population	Sample size	Intervention/exposure	Primary outcome	Follow-up
Lenk et al[22], 2022	Retrospective	Tibial fracture with substance abuse	92	Multimodal analgesia	Opioid consumption	30 days
Gedda et al[21], 2023	Retrospective	Colorectal surgery	1256	Multimodal analgesia bundle	Postoperative opioid use	90 days
Wei et al[24], 2019	Retrospective	Trauma patients	15847	Multi-modal pain regimen	Inpatient opioid exposure	Discharge
Oldfield et al[6], 2018	Prospective	Chronic pain with risky opioid use	84	Multimodal treatment including buprenorphine	Treatment outcomes	12 months
Moller et al[23], 1998	Prospective	Elderly surgical patients	1218	Anesthesia techniques	Cognitive dysfunction	3 months
Fingerhood et al[18], 2014	Retrospective	Opioid-dependent patients	302	Buprenorphine vs methadone	Treatment retention	12 months
Wasan et al[3], 2015	Prospective	Chronic low back pain	370	Various treatments	Opioid analgesia and misuse	6 months
Rudolph et al[7], 2024	Retrospective	Medicaid patients	8945	Pain management treatments	Opioid use disorder risk	24 months
Grau-López et al[4], 2014	Cross-sectional	Dual-diagnosis outpatients	186	Medication prescriptions	Prescription patterns	Single time point
Workman et al[5], 2024	Retrospective	Veterans with problematic opioid use	2847	NLP vs diagnostic codes	Identification methods	Variable