Superior mesenteric artery syndrome: Diagnosis and management

Table 3 Complications and comorbidities of superior mesenteric artery syndrome

Complications			Ref.
	Gastrointestinal complications 25%-59% in SMA syndrome		[62,73]
		Esophageal inflammation, bleeding, and ulcer	[60,80,81]
		Gastric inflammation, ulcer, emphysema, ischemia, necrosis, perforation, and bezoar	[82-85]
		Duodenal inflammation, ulcer, mucosal necrosis, emphysema, and bezoar	[63,64,86]
		Portal venous gas and thrombosis	[65,66,84]
		Pneumoperitoneum and pneumomediastinum	[67,68]
	Pancreato-biliary complications
		Elevated serum pancreatic and/or biliary enzymes	[69]
		Acute and chronic pancreatitis	[85]
		Jaundice	[70]
	Pulmonary complications
		Aspiration pneumonia	[71]
		Adult respiratory distress syndrome	[72]
	Dehydration
		Low blood pressure	[75]
		Acute kidney injury	[75]
		Shock	[75]
	Electrolytes and gas abnormalities
		Hypokalemia	[76]
		Hyponatremia	[76]
		Metabolic alkalosis	[76]
	Severe malnutrition		[77]
	Recurrent pregnancy loss		[78]
	Sudden death		[82]
Comorbidities related to SMA syndrome
	Nutcracker phenomenon		[87,88]
	Celiac axis compression syndrome (median arcuate ligament syndrome)		[89,90]

SMA: Superior mesenteric artery.