Superior mesenteric artery syndrome: Diagnosis and management

Table 2 Etiology of superior mesenteric artery syndrome

Etiology		Ref.
Congenital
	Short or high insertion of Treitz ligament	[60]
	Low origin of the SMA	[35]
	Spinal deformity (Scoliosis, Marfan, etc.)	[36,37]
	Familial	[38,39]
	Malrotation of SMA and SMV	[40,41]
	Malrotation of intestine	[2]
Body weight loss
	Diet and obesity surgery (sleeve surgery)	[5,42]
	Eating disorders (anorexia nervosa, anorexia bulimia)	[25,36]
	Malabsorption	[17]
	Malignancy	[17,18,35]
	Tuberculosis	[44]
	Chemotherapy	[45,46]
	Trauma (Burn injury, brain injury, spinal cord injuries, etc.)	[22,47,48]
	Neural disorders (ALS, MELAS, paraplegia, cerebral palsy, etc.)	[49,50]
	Drug or alcohol abuse	[36]
	Rheumatoid arthritis	[51]
Scoliosis surgery		[19,30-34]
Intestinal surgery (IPAA, colectomy, etc.)		[36,52,53]
Aging (bed rest, frail, vascular calcification, etc.)		[54,55]
Body cast		[4-6]
"Pseudo-" SMA syndrome
	Aortic artery aneurysm (Aortoduodenal syndrome)	[56-58]
	Surgery near or around the SMA and 3rd duodenum	[59]

SMA: Superior mesenteric artery; SMV: Superior mesenteric vein; ALS: Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis; MELAS: Mitochondrial myopathy, encephalopathy, lactic acidosis, and stroke-like episodes; IPAA: Ileal pouch-anal anastomosis.