Contrast-induced acute kidney injury: A review of practical points

Table 9 Alternative non-contrast enhanced imaging techniques

Name of the technique	Clinical indications	Notes
TOF MR angiography	Cerebral aneurysm	No contrast agent is required
	Stroke
	Atherosclerotic carotid disease
	Arteriovenous malformation
	Peripheral artery disease (less frequently)
ECG-gated fast spin echo MR angiography	Peripheral artery disease	No contrast agent is required.
	Thoraco-abdominal aortic aneurysm	Higher image quality compared to TOF MR angiography in peripheral arterial imaging
SSFP MR imaging	Coronary artery disease	No contrast agent is required
	Myocardial viability and function
	Pericardial diseases
	Renal artery stenosis
	Congenital heart diseases
Arterial spin labeling with/without SSFP	Native and transplanted renal renal artery stenosis	No contrast agent is required.
	Renal perfusion	Evaluation of organ perfusion
	Cerebral blood flow	When combined with SSFP, it can be used as an angiographic imaging
	Characterization of masses
Phase contrast MR imaging	Imaging of major thoroco-abdominal vascular structures	No contrast agent is required.
	Congenital heart disease	Quantification of blood flow and velocity
	Renal artery stenosis
Carbon-dioxide angiography	Peripheral artery disease (mostly infra-diaphragmatic)	No contrast agent is required.
		Non-allergenic, non-nephrotoxic, inexpensive.
		Neurotoxic, risk of air trapping and distal ischemia

TOF: Time-of-flight; MR: Magnetic resonance; ECG: Electrocardiography; SSFP: Steady-state free precession.