Gut-kidney axis: Dysbiosis and renal disease

Table 6 Characteristics of the studies included

Ref.	Design	Sample size	Intervention	Main results
De Mauri et al[62], 2022	Placebo-controlled, randomized study	IG = 24; CG = 23	Probiotic	In the probiotic group there was a trend in the reduction of microbiota toxins
Cosola et al[63], 2021	Randomized trial	IG = 23; CG = 24	Synbiotic	In the symbiotic group a decrease in IS in the CKD group
Ebrahim et al[64], 2022	Randomized controlled trial	IG = 23; CG = 22	Prebiotic	There was a significant reduction in uremic toxin levels, both in free IS and free pCG
Armani et al[65], 2022	Randomized controlled trial	IG = 23; CG = 23	Prebiotic	There was a significant decrease kin IL-6 levels and a trend toward pCS reduction only in the prebiotic group

CKD: Chronic kidney disease; IG: Intervention group; CG: Control group; IS: Indoxyl sulfate; pCS: Para cresyl sulfate; pCG: P-cresyl-glucuronide; IL-6: Interleukin-6.