Biomarkers innovation in urinary tract infections: Insights into pathophysiology, antibiotic resistance, and clinical applications

Table 2 Clinical applications of biomarkers in urinary tract infections

Biomarkers	Clinical application	Ref.
NGAL	Guides UTI diagnosis and therapy, reduces unnecessary antibiotic use, and serves as a marker for disease severity	[23]
KIM-1	Used for diagnosis and prognosis of renal diseases	[34]
IL-8	Aids in diagnosing neonatal sepsis and serves as a marker for inflammation	[41]
IL-6	Evaluate impact of therapeutic agents on urinary bacteria and systemic inflammation	[41]
XO	Measures nitrite levels during UTI, allowing real-time monitoring of bacterial activity and treatment efficacy	[53]
cfDNA and Tr-DNA	Enables early identification of bacterial infections, particularly in UTIs and post-transplant monitoring	[59]
HBP	Functions as an auxiliary marker for detecting bacteremia and assessing severity of infection	[44]
PCT	Facilitates early diagnosis and differentiation of bacterial UTIs	[63]
LBP	Serves as a biomarker for diagnosing febrile UTIs, particularly in pediatric patients	[51]

NGAL: Neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin; KIM-1: Kidney Injury molecule-1; IL: Interleukin; HBP: Heparin-binding protein; LBP: Lipopolysaccharide-binding protein; PCT: Procalcitonin; XO: Xanthine oxidase; cfDNA: Cell-free DNA; trDNA: Transrenal DNA; UTI: Urinary tract infections.