Biomarkers innovation in urinary tract infections: Insights into pathophysiology, antibiotic resistance, and clinical applications

Table 1 Commonly detected pathogens causing urinary tract infections

Bacteria	Factors of UTI
Escherichia coli	The most common cause of UTI; the pathogen ascends from the urethra to the bladder or descends from the kidneys to lower urinary tract
Staphylococcus saprophyticus	Present as skin flora; cause UTIs, especially in young women
Enterococcus faecalis	It is an opportunistic pathogen; associated with complicated UTIs, especially in hospitalized patients
Pseudomonas aeruginosa	Cause antibiotic resistance; form biofilms, infect patients with catheters or those who are immunocompromised
Klebsiella pneumoniae	Affect individuals with underlying health conditions that are resistant to multiple antibiotics
Proteus mirabilis	Associated with catheter use and urinary retention; produces urease, which contributes to struvite stones
Enterobacter spp.	Cause UTIs in hospitalized patients; resistant to multiple antibiotics
Coagulase-negative Staphylococci spp.	Present in skin flora; cause UTIs in immunocompromised individuals or those with catheters

UTI: Urinary tract infections.