Rift Valley fever: An emerging zoonotic threat to global health and agriculture

Table 1 Vectors and host animals

Category	Details
Mosquito vectors	Aedes species: Primary vectors, capable of vertical transmission via eggs. Culex, Mansonia, Anopheles: Secondary/mechanical vectors that amplify outbreaks in new regions
Transmission ecology	Primary foci: Virus maintained between Aedes mosquitoes and ruminant hosts through vertical transmission. Secondary foci: Spread through livestock movement and dispersal of infected mosquitoes; outbreaks amplified by local mosquito species in irrigated/flood-prone areas
Host animals	Affects cattle, sheep, goats, and camels. Sheep and goats more susceptible than cattle and camels. Outbreaks often marked by sudden abortion waves in livestock
Human transmission	Direct/indirect contact with infected animal blood, tissues, or organs during slaughtering, butchering, veterinary work, or carcass handling. Consumption of raw/unpasteurized milk from infected animals. Bites from infected mosquitoes (Aedes, Culex) and possibly blood-feeding flies
Human-to-human spread	No documented human-to-human transmission. No transmission to healthcare workers when standard infection control is used