Lassa fever: A comprehensive review of virology, clinical management, and global health implications

Table 5 Overview of Lassa fever vaccine candidates: Platforms, clinical stages, and immune responses

Vaccine platform	Stage	Immune response	Protection (models)
VSV-based (VSVΔG -LASVGPC)	Phase I/II	Strong humoral and T cell	Guinea pigs, NHPs
Reassortant ML29	Preclinical	IgG, IFN-γ T cells	Guinea pigs, NHPs
DNA-based (INO-4500)	Phase I	IgG, neutralizing Abs	Guinea pigs, NHPs
Measles virus vector (MV-LASV)	Phase I	CD4/CD8 T cells, IgG	NHPs
Vaccinia virus vector	Preclinical	Mixed	Guinea pigs, NHPs
ChAdOx1 adenovirus vector	Preclinical	T cell and IgG	Mice, Guinea pigs
mRNA-based	Preclinical	Fc-mediated + T cell	Guinea pigs, mice
Yellow fever 17D vector	Preclinical	IgG	Guinea pigs
VEEV RNA replicon	Preclinical	T cell mediated	Guinea pigs
Rabies virus vector	Preclinical	ADCC, IgG	Guinea pigs, NHPs
Protein nanoparticle	Preclinical	Neutralizing Abs	Guinea pigs
Virus-like particles	Preclinical	Neutralizing Abs	Rabbits

NHPs: Non-human primates; VSV: Vesicular stomatitis virus; ADCC: Antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity; IFN: Interferon.