New frontiers in sickle cell disease: The role of antiviral therapies and emerging drugs in managing viral infections

Table 2 Data from articles reporting respiratory viral infections in sickle cell disease patients

Ref.	Type of study	Participants	Results
Inusa et al[34], 2010	Survey from April 2009 and August 2009	Among the 2200 children with SCD, 21 cases of H1N1 were identified	Half of the patients were admitted to the hospital, and a 25% of them developed ACS
Sadreameli et al[36], 2014	Laboratory confirmed cases of RSV from 1993 to 2011	Total 64 SCD children < 18 years with RSV and 91 with seasonal influenza	All SCD children with RSV infection and the majority of those having influenza (89%, P = 0.006) were hospitalized. Mechanical ventilation was necessary in some RSV cases, but not in any influenza cases. The sole reported death occurred in a 15-year-old patient who had an RSV infection
Rostad et al[37],2021	Retrospective, nested, case control study (2012 to 2019)	Total 160/2636 (6.1%) SCD patients < 18 years positive for RSV	The hospitalization rate due to RSV in children under five was 20.7 per 1000 person-years. Children with RSV were significantly younger (3.8 years) than not having RSV (7.6 years) (P < 0.001). Among RSV infected children, 22 children (13.8%) developed ACS, and nine (5.6%) required intensive care, with no significant difference compared to RSV negative children with SCD
Strouse et al[38], 2010	Retrospective cohort	Total 123 teenagers with SCD < 22 years diagnosed with influenza B and H1N1	SCD patients having influenza were generally younger and had a lower likelihood of having asthma. In contrast, H1N1 patients more frequently experienced ACS, severe pain, and required intensive care. Treated with antiviral medications and transfusions (administered to 10% of H1N1 patients compared to 3% of those with influenza) (P = 0.045)
George et al[39], 2011	Retrospective chart review	Total 48 SCD children with H1N1	Most common diagnosed condition among SCD patients was ACS. There were no instances of mechanical ventilation or reported deaths. A prior occurrence of ACS was linked to a higher probability of hospital admission
Colombatti et al[40], 2011	Retrospective survey	Total 17 SCD children < 17 infected with H1N1	Total 8 patients (47%) experienced ACS; 8 patients (47%) had flu-like symptoms accompanied by vaso-occlusive crisis; and 1 patient (6%) had splenic sequestration
Telfer et al[42], 2020	Survey	Total 166 SCD, 26 thalassemia, and 3 rare inherited anemia patients with confirmed COVID-19	No patients needed mechanical ventilation. No report of death in this study
Singh et al[43], 2021	Retrospective cohort	Total 312 SCD and 312 SCT (trait) with COVID-19	SCD individuals had an increased risk of getting hospital admission compared to SCT. The fatality rate did not show a significant difference. No comparisons were made between adults and children
Minniti et al[35], 2021	Cohort	Total 66 SCD patients with COVID-19	Patients over 50 years old had elevated serum creatinine, lactate dehydrogenase, and D-dimer are the risk factors for death, regardless of their genotype or gender. Of these patients, 75% needed hospitalization, and 10.6% passed away. No deaths occurred among children
Haghpanah et al[41], 2021	Systematic review and metanalysis	Total 48636 patients with hemoglobinopathies (b-thal and SCD)	In SCD patients, the rate of COVID-19 incidence is higher as compared to general population

ACS: Acute chest syndrome; COVID-19: Coronavirus disease 2019; H1N1: Influenza A; RSV: Respiratory syncytial virus; SCD: Sickle cell disease; SCT: Sickle cell trait.