Effects of Kalanchoe pinnata, exercise, and stimulation on neuroinflammation, redox homeostasis, and neuropathic pain in a Wistar-rat model

Figure 5 The effects of Kalanchoe pinnata, vagus nerve stimulation, and treadmill exercise on inflammatory markers: Tumor necrosis factor-α, nuclear factor-kappa B, interleukin-1β, interleukin-10, after partial sciatic nerve ligation. A: Tumor necrosis factor-α; B: Nuclear factor-kappa B; C: Interleukin-1β; D: Interleukin-10. Data are presented as mean ± SEM. Statistical significance was assessed using one-way analysis of variance followed by Tukey’s honestly significant difference multiple comparison test. Effect sizes and confidence intervals were calculated to complement P value interpretation (Supplementary Table 1). ^aP < 0.05, ^bP < 0.01, ^cP < 0.001, ^dP < 0.0001 compared with the normal control group. ^eP < 0.05, ^fP < 0.01, ^gP < 0.001, ^hP < 0.0001 compared with partial sciatic nerve ligation group. Sham: Normal control; PSNL: Partial sciatic nerve ligation; KP: Kalanchoe pinnata; TE: Treadmill exercise; VNS: Vagus nerve stimulation; NF-κB: Nuclear factor-kappa B; Gaba: Gabapentin.