Urological footprint of chronic kidney disease: A nephrologist perspective on early detection and collaborative management

Table 5 Risk of urinary tract infections and their sequelae across different stages of chronic kidney disease in patients with urological causes

CKD stage	Risk of UTI	Contributing factors	Common sequelae	Clinical implications
Stage 1-2	Mild to moderate	(1) Structural abnormalities; and (2) Incomplete bladder emptying	(1) Occasional pyuria; and (2) Mild renal inflammation	Early detection and urological management can prevent progression
Stage 3	Moderate	(1) Reduced renal clearance; and (2) Recurrent infections	(1) Accelerated GFR decline; and (2) Onset of antibiotic resistance	Close monitoring and tailored antimicrobial therapy are essential to slow progression
Stage 4	High	(1) Impaired immune response; and (2) Chronic colonization	(1) Frequent hospitalizations; and (2) Risk of systemic infection	Repeated or resistant infections can hasten CKD progression; aggressive infection control is needed
Stage 5 (ESKD)	Very high	(1) Dialysis-related risks; and (2) Severe urinary tract dysfunction	(1) Sepsis; and (2) Multidrug-resistant organisms	Multidisciplinary care essential; infection prevention is critical

CKD: Chronic kidney disease; ESKD: End-stage kidney disease; UTI: Urinary tract infection.