Predictive model for sphincter preservation in lower rectal cancer

Table 2 Various biomarkers predicting outcomes after sphincter preservation surgery[77]

Classification	Markers
Haematological markers[78]	Neutrophil–lymphocyte ratio, preoperative plasma fibrinogen and neutrophil–lymphocyte ratio, platelet-to-lymphocyte ratio, monocytes–lymphocyte ratio
Inflammatory markers[78]	Systemic immune-inflammation index, prognostic nutritional index, systemic inflammation response index, ∆pan-immune-inflammation value, CD8+ cell population, interleukin-6 population, TNF-alpha, CRP level
Molecular markers	MSI, BRAF, KRAS, EGFR status, PI3K AKT pathway, CEA level
Liquid biopsy	Circulating tumor cells, circulating tumor DNA, microRNA, cell-free DNA
Pathologic	Tumor budding, EMVI on MRI

MSI: Microsatellite instability; CEA: Carcinoembryonic antigen; CRP: C-reactive protein; TNF: Tumor necrosis factor; EMVI: Extramural venous invasion; MRI: Magnetic resonance imaging.