Fatty liver reexamined choline and mitochondrial toxin amelioration

doi:10.4331/wjbc.v16.i4.111831

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World Journal of Biological Chemistry

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1949-8454

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Baishideng Publishing Group Inc, 7041 Koll Center Parkway, Suite 160, Pleasanton, CA 94566, USA

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World J Biol Chem. Dec 5, 2025; 16(4): 111831
Published online Dec 5, 2025. doi: 10.4331/wjbc.v16.i4.111831

Table 4 Comparison of choline supplement forms¹

Supplement form	Choline content	Bioavailability
Choline bitartrate	40%	20%
Choline chloride	74%	20%
Phosphatidylcholine	Approximately 13% (varies by source)	Moderate (Approximately 60%)
Citicoline (cytidine diphosphate-choline)	21%	High (> approximately 90%)

¹Comparative analysis of choline supplement forms by elemental choline content and estimated bioavailability. Choline chloride contains the highest proportion of choline by weight but is poorly absorbed. Citicoline (cytidine diphosphate-choline) stands out for its high bioavailability, making it an efficient source despite its lower choline density. Phosphatidylcholine, while lower in choline content, may offer additional functional benefits related to membrane structure and lipid metabolism.

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Citation: Mercola J. Fatty liver reexamined choline and mitochondrial toxin amelioration. World J Biol Chem 2025; 16(4): 111831
URL: https://www.wjgnet.com/1949-8454/full/v16/i4/111831.htm
DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.4331/wjbc.v16.i4.111831

Mercola J. Fatty liver reexamined choline and mitochondrial toxin amelioration. World J Biol Chem 2025; 16(4): 111831 [PMID: 41378252 DOI: 10.4331/wjbc.v16.i4.111831]

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