Dexmedetomidine enhances recovery after gastrointestinal cancer surgery by protecting the endothelial glycocalyx: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study

Table 2 Biomarker levels and between-group comparisons over time

Biomarker	Time point	DEX group (n = 55)	Control group (n = 55)	P value
Syndecan-1 (ng/mL)	T0	20.66 ± 4.43	20.85 ± 5.06	0.832
	T1	44.72 ± 7.10	48.73 ± 6.26	0.002
	T2	34.16 ± 4.81	37.93 ± 5.78	< 0.001
	T3	29.21 ± 3.88	31.06 ± 3.47	0.009
Heparan sulfate (ng/mL)	T0	8.61 ± 1.71	8.70 ± 1.89	0.787
	T1	12.19 ± 2.20	13.76 ± 2.44	0.001
	T2	9.97 ± 2.27	10.98 ± 2.31	0.023
	T3	9.12 ± 2.82	9.29 ± 2.26	0.728
IL-6 (pg/mL)	T0	85.92 ± 24.31	85.50 ± 29.06	0.934
	T1	117.68 ± 40.77	131.03 ± 41.68	0.092
	T2	110.77 ± 29.72	138.86 ± 35.95	< 0.0001
	T3	97.19 ± 38.11	105.00 ± 42.71	0.314
TNF-α (pg/mL)	T0	41.99 ± 9.72	40.30 ± 9.57	0.36
	T1	58.61 ± 11.35	61.52 ± 10.73	0.17
	T2	56.90 ± 10.63	63.75 ± 12.17	0.002
	T3	56.88 ± 11.32	60.36 ± 12.37	0.126

DEX: Dexmedetomidine; IL-6: Interleukin-6; TNF-α: Tumor necrosis factor-alpha.