Current trends in three-dimensional visualization and real-time navigation as well as robot-assisted technologies in hepatobiliary surgery

Table 4 Advantages and limitations of three-dimensional visualization, robot-assisted surgery, and electromagnetic tracking navigation

	Advantages	Limitations
3D visualization	Realistic spatially dissected views	Complex and time-consuming reconstruction process
	Accurate 3D preoperative images	Possible loss of raw data due to operational errors
	Possibility of complicated surgery	Distortion in reconstructed images
	Optimization of preoperative assessment	Poor accuracy of reconstructed images
	Time-saving simulation	Complex algorithms and imperfect display techniques
	Less time consumed and fewer complications	Registration of mutable organs
	Novel educational techniques	High cost
Robot-assisted	Better micro-invasiveness	Inefficient surgical resources
	Smaller equipment for wider scope	Lack of tactile feedback
	Larger and clearer 3D views	Limitations in the choice of anatomical methods
	Micro-invasiveness	Restrictions on the placement of casing needles
	Improved venous drainage	Time-consuming operation
	More accurate resolution and greater magnification	Prolonged Pringle operation in the hilar region
	Filtering of natural tremor	Potential bleeding tendency of the clamping and squeezing technique
	Better ergonomics of the operator	High cost
Electromagnetic tracking real-time navigation	No requirement for any other invasive operations	Magnetic field interference and tracking errors
	No line of sight restrictions	Low tracking accuracy and robustness relative to environmental conditions
	Real-time intraoperative tracking and navigation	Low stability of electromagnetic navigation system
	Display of intraoperative fine anatomy	High cost
	Improved safety of surgical operations	Registration of mutable organs
	Identification of lesions that are not visually detectable	Accuracy of navigation issues
	Simultaneous sharing of intraoperative information	Time-consuming reconstruction image overlay
	Increased hand-eye coordination for doctors	Low resolution and distortion of the reconstructed image
		Insufficient communication between technicians and surgeons
		Tedious operation

3D: Three-dimensional.