Early detection of diabetic kidney disease: Present limitations and future perspectives

Table 4 Applications of metabolomics in the diagnosis of diabetic kidney disease

Specimen	Panel	Application	Ref.
Plasma	Fatty acids C10:0, C12:0, C14:0, C16:1n-9, C16:0, C18:2, C18:1n-9, C18:1n-11, C18:0, C20:4, C20:5, C20:3, C20:2, C20:0, C22:6	Diverse profiles in different stages of DKD	[122]
Plasma	Phospholipids C18:2-LPC, C16:0/18:1-PE, pC18:0/20:4-PE, C18:0/22:6-PI, C18:0/18:0-PS, dC18:0/20:2-SM	Diagnosis of DKD	[123]
Serum	γ-butyrobetaine, SDMA, azelaic acid, MID 114, MID 127	Diagnosis of DKD	[124]
Urine	3-hydroxy isovalerate, aconitic acid, citric acid, 2-ethyl 3-OH propionate, glycolic acid, homovanillic acid, 3-hydroxy isobutyrate, 2-methyl acetoacetate, 3-methyl adipic acid, 3-methyl crotonyl glycine, 3-hydroxy propionate, tiglylglycine, uracil	Reduced expression in DKD patients	[125]
Plasma and urine	Plasma: Histidine, butenoylcarnitine Urine: Hexose, glutamine, tyrosine	Addition to the original predictive model improved risk estimation for albuminuria progression	[126]
Plasma	P-cresol sulfate, phenylacetylglutamine, myoinositol, pseudouridine, urate	Predicting progression toward ESRD	[127]

LPC: Lysophosphatidylcholine; PE: Phosphatidylethanolamine; PI: Phosphatidylinositol; PS: Phosphatidylserine; SM: Sphingomyelin; SDMA: Symmetric dimethylarginine; MID: Metabolite ID; DKD: Diabetic kidney disease; ESRD: End-stage renal disease.