Pathophysiological role and therapeutic implications of inflammation in diabetic nephropathy

Table 2 Inflammatory cytokine-related effects potentially involved in the development and progression of renal injury in diabetes

Increase expression and synthesis of chemokines, adhesion molecules, transcription factors, cytokines, growth factors and mediators of inflammation

Alteration of synthesis of prostaglandins and hyaluronan

Stimulation of oxidative stress

Induction of intraglomerular hemodynamic abnormalities

Increase of vascular endothelial cell permeability

Induction of cell proliferation and contraction, and inhibition of endothelium relaxation

Increase fibronectin expression

Induction of cell apoptosis and necrosis

Induction of glomerular hypertrophy

Stimulation of plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 production

Reduction of tissue factor inhibitor and thrombomodulin expression

Stimulation of inflammatory cells recruitment and activation

Induction of major histocompatibility complex antigen expression