Machine learning and deep learning in predicting the risk of diabetic kidney disease: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Table 4 Predictors in diabetic kidney disease prediction models

Ref.	Number	Demographic	Past history	Laboratory
Cho et al[22], 2008	39	BMI (mean, minimum)	NA	SBP (mean, EST, and initial), DBP (slope and maximum), WBC (initial), WBC (latest), hemoglobin, platelet (slope), platelet (var), platelet (K), platelet (EST), cholesterol (K and EST), AST (K and initial), ALT (initial, minimum, and K), ALP (minimum and latest), creatinine (mean and var), uric acid (var), Na (EST), K (slope and K), triglyceride (EST), HDL-C (var and initial), LDL-C (EST and initial), microalbumin (mean, var, maximum, and minimum)
Dagliati et al[23], 2018	4	BMI	Smoking, hypertension	HbA1c
Rodriguez-Romero et al[24], 2019	18	Age	NA	UAlb at baseline, eGFR at baseline, UCr at baseline, eGFR from baseline to year 1, trig at baseline, FPG at baseline, CPK at baseline, age, eGFR at month 4, K at baseline, LDL at baseline, Chol at baseline, eGFR at month 12, FPG at month 4, FPG from baseline to year 1, trig from baseline to year 1, UACR at baseline, FPG at month 8
Allen et al[25], 2022	15	Age, gender, BMI	Acute kidney injury, chronic heart failure, smoking, drinking	SBP, DBP, blood urea nitrogen, creatinine, eGFR, cholesterol (HDL and LDL), white cell count
Dong et al[26], 2022	8	Age, BMI	NA	Hcy, HbA1c, ALB, eGFR, bicarbonate, LDL
Nicolucci et al[27], 2022	46	Gender, age, height, weight, BMI, waist circumference, diabetes duration	NA	SBP, DBP, ankle/brachial index DX, ankle/brachial index SX, fasting blood glucose, blood glucose after breakfast, blood glucose before dinner, blood glucose before lunch, blood glucose at 11:00 pm, blood glucose after lunch, blood glucose after dinner, pre-prandial blood glucose, post-prandial blood glucose, HbA1c, albuminuria, serum creatinine, creatinine clearance, total cholesterol, LDL cholesterol, HDL cholesterol, triglycerides, fibrinogen, GGT, ALT, AST, alkaline phosphatase, amylase, CPK, hemoglobin, platelets, BUN, uric acid, glycosuria, urinary amylase, urinary ketones, urinary potassium, urinary sodium, urine creatinine, urine culture
Sabanayagam et al[28], 2023	15	Ethnicity (Malay/Chinese)	Diabetic retinopathy, hypertension	Acetate, diabetic retinopathy, SBP, DHA, GFR-EPI, HbA1c, IDL-CE%, M-HDL-PL%, M-VLDL-PL%, S-HDL-FC%, XL-HDL-CE%, anti-DM meds
Hosseini Sarkhosh et al[29], 2023	6	Diabetes duration	Hypertension, CVD	HbA1c, eGFR, ACR
Yun et al[30], 2024	10	Age	NA	PP, SBP, variabilities of PP and SBP, Scr, HDL-C, HbA1c, TG, variabilities of HbA1c
Lin et al[31], 2025	46	Gender, age	Smoking, drinking	WBC count, neutrophil count, lymph count, mono count, eosinophil count, basophil count, red blood cell count, hemoglobin, hematocrit, mean corpuscular volume, mean corpuscular hemoglobin, mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration, red cell distribution width-coefficient of variation, platelet, mean platelet volume, platelet distribution width, lymph, mono, eosinophil, basophil, ALT, AST, AST/ALT (AST ALT), total bilirubin, creatinine, Ca, total cholesterol, triglyceride, HDL, LDL, prealbumin, HbA1c, D-Dimer, pH, glucose, billing, ketone, obstetric, nitrogen, urology
Zou et al[32], 2025	5	Age	NA	UACR, Cystatin C, eGFR, Neutrophil
Dei Cas et al[33], 2025	34	Gender, age, weight, weight-past, BMI, diabetes duration	CKD	SBP, DBP, SBP in the past, DBP in the past, HbA1c, HbA1c in the past, eGFR, eGFR in the past, AER, ACR > 30, AER in the past, and anti-DM Meds

BMI: Body mass index; NA: Not available; SBP: Systolic blood pressure; EST: Estimated value on the date of prediction; DBP: Diastolic blood pressure; WBC: White blood cell; AST: Aspartate aminotransferase; ALT: Alanine aminotransferase; ALP: Alkaline phosphatase; var: Variance; HDL: High-density lipoprotein; LDL: Low-density lipoprotein; HbA1C: Glycosylated hemoglobin; eGFR, Estimated glomerular filtration rate; UAlb: Uninary albumin; UCr: Urinary creatinine; Trig: Triglycerides; FPG: Fasting plasma glucose; CPK: Creatinine phosphokinase; UACR: Urine albumin-creatinine ratio; Chol: Cholesterol; Hcy: Homocysteine; ALB: Albumin; GGT: Gamma-glutamyl transferase; CVD: Cardiovascular disease; BUN: Blood urea nitrogen; DHA: Docosahexaenoic acid; GFR-EPI: Glomerular filtration rate estimated using; IDL-CE%: Cholesterol esters to total lipids ratio in IDL; M-HDL-PL%: Phospholipids to total lipids ratio in medium HDL; M-VLDL-PL%: Phospholipids to total lipids ratio in medium VLDL; S-HDL-FC%: Free cholesterol to total lipids ratio in small HDL; XL-HDL-CE%: Cholesterol esters to total lipids ratio in very large HDL; AER: Albumin excretion rate; ACR: Albumin-creatinine ratio.