Association of serum bile acid profiles with the risk of gastrointestinal autonomic neuropathy in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus

doi:10.4239/wjd.v17.i2.112859

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World Journal of Diabetes

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1948-9358

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Baishideng Publishing Group Inc, 7041 Koll Center Parkway, Suite 160, Pleasanton, CA 94566, USA

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World J Diabetes. Feb 15, 2026; 17(2): 112859
Published online Feb 15, 2026. doi: 10.4239/wjd.v17.i2.112859

Table 1 Clinical characteristics of the healthy control, type 2 diabetes mellitus, and diabetic gastric autonomic neuropathy groups, n (%)

Variables	HC (n = 75)	T2DM (n = 69)	DGAN (n = 26)	P value	P1 value	P2 value	P3 value
Gender (F, %)	45, 52.30	28, 32.20	9, 34.60	0.951	1.000	0.810	0.813
Age (years)	56.00 (48.50, 65.00)	58.00 (52.00, 64.00)	46.00 (33.00, 63.00)	0.060	0.467	0.053	0.024^a
BMI (kg/m²)	22.03 (20.67, 23.28)	25.73 (24.11, 25.73)	23.45 (20.62, 26.54)	< 0.001^b	< 0.001^b	0.067	0.050^a
Duration of diabetes, in months	-	97.65 (24.00, 97.65)	102.00 (36.00, 192.00)	0.490	-	-	0.490
Duration of GI, in months	-	-	1.50 (0.29, 15.00)	-	-	-	-
SBP, mmHg	119.00 (108.00, 127.00)	130.00 (125.00, 143.00)	127.50 (110.00, 150.00)	< 0.001^b	< 0.001^b	0.003^b	0.424
DBP, mmHg	74.00 (67.50, 82.00)	82.00 (78.00, 88.00)	86.50 (76.00, 98.00)	< 0.001^b	< 0.001^b	< 0.001^b	0.224
WBC, × 10⁹/L	6.19 (5.11, 7.56)	6.81 (5.93, 7.44)	5.96 (4.77, 7.30)	0.113	0.088	0.484	0.096
Hb, g/L	134.00 (124.00, 147.00)	137.03 (126.00, 147.00)	129.00 (112.00, 137.00)	0.014^a	0.236	0.042^a	0.003^b
PLT, × 10⁹/L	224.00 (165.50, 257.50)	219.70 (201.00, 229.00)	211.50 (171.00, 262.00)	0.994	0.944	0.825	0.968
CRP, mg/L	0.00 (0.00, 1.28)	1.00 (0.00, 2.04)	2.10 (1.00, 3.60)	0.024^a	0.007^b	0.746	0.109
FBG, mmol/L	5.24 (4.90. 5.54)	8.49 (6.00, 10.00)	6.50 (5.00, 9.00)	< 0.001^b	< 0.001^b	0.001^b	0.104
HbA1c, %	-	8.93 (7.40, 10.00)	7.93 (6.60, 10.40)	< 0.001^b	-	-	< 0.001^b
FC-P, nmol/L	-	0.81 (0.55, 0.83)	0.45 (0.25, 0.65)	< 0.001^b	-	-	< 0.001^b
2hC-P, nmol/L	-	1.84 (1.15, 1.84)	0.73 (0.34, 1.17)	< 0.001^b	-	-	< 0.001^b
BUN, mmol/L	5.28 (4.32, 6.34)	5.59 (4.60, 6.45)	4.81 (4.28, 6.02)	0.296	0.297	0.435	0.149
SCr, µmol/L	66.10 (52.95, 76.40)	68.90 (58.90, 76.10)	68.45 (49.70, 76.10)	0.528	0.253	0.989	0.571
eGFR, mL/min/1.73 m²	100.10 (100.10, 100.89)	94.83 (93.49, 103.37)	102.36 (88.93, 119.02)	0.011^a	0.005^b	0.360	0.052
UACR, mg/g	-	32.51 (7.61, 87.32)	66.19 (11.53, 694.73)	0.010^a	-	-	0.010^a
TG, mmol/L	1.48 (1.05, 1.52)	2.08 (1.29, 2.51)	1.39 (1.08, 2.08)	0.001^b	< 0.001^b	0.645	0.031^a
TC, mmol/L	4.36 (4.04, 4.40)	4.25 (3.64, 4.97)	4.11 (3.59, 4.64)	0.657	0.614	0.361	0.650
LDL-C, mmol/L	2.62 (2.28, 2.70)	2.88 (2.25, 3.32)	2.64 (2.18, 3.37)	0.018^a	0.002^b	0.528	0.439
HDL-C, mmol/L	1.34 (1.24, 1.34)	1.11 (0.96, 1.20)	1.12 (0.94, 1.22)	< 0.001^b	< 0.001^b	< 0.001^b	0.986
ALB, g/L	43.10 (39.85, 46.85)	42.39 (39.90, 44.20)	38.45 (36.30, 44.10)	0.044^a	0.249	0.024^a	0.060
ALT, U/L	15.40 (10.00, 19.10)	18.70 (12.50, 24.20)	14.05 (10.00, 21.00)	0.012^a	0.004^b	0.816	0.061
AST, U/L	17.60 (14.75, 21.95)	19.20 (14.80, 23.05)	14.35 (11.70, 20.10)	0.027^a	0.264	0.027^a	0.009^b
Smoking history	17 (22.70)	17 (24.60)	4 (15.40)	0.640	0.838	0.579	0.414
Drinking history	17 (22.70)	17 (24.60)	7 (26.90)	0.914	0.838	0.791	1.000
Diabetic family history	3 (4.00)	10 (14.50)	2 (7.70)	0.079	0.040^a	0.601	0.500
Hypertension	0	25 (36.20)	13 (50.00)	< 0.001^b	< 0.001^b	< 0.001^b	0.247
Cerebral infarction	0	10 (14.50)	3 (11.50)	0.004^b	< 0.001^b	0.016^a	0.750
Coronary atherosclerotic heart disease	0	7 (10.10)	2 (7.70)	0.018^a	0.005^b	0.064	1.000
Diabetic ketosis	-	1 (1.40)	11 (42.30)	< 0.001^b	-	-	< 0.001^b
Diabetic nephropathy	-	9 (13.00)	5 (19.20)	0.515	-	-	0.515
Diabetic autonomic neuropathy	-	0 (0.00)	10 (38.50)	< 0.001^b	-	-	< 0.001^b
Diabetic peripheral neuropathy	-	18 (26.10)	16 (61.50)	0.002^b	-	-	0.002^b
Diabetic retinopathy	-	3 (4.30)	4 (15.40)	0.086	-	-	0.086
Sulfonylureas	-	4 (5.80)	2 (7.70)	1.000	-	-	1.000
Glinides	-	3 (4.30)	1 (3.80)	1.000	-	-	1.000
Metformin	-	14 (20.30)	9 (34.60)	0.181	-	-	0.181
TZDs	-	0 (0.00)	1 (3.80)	0.275	-	-	0.275
AGI	-	2 (2.90)	1 (3.80)	1.000	-	-	1.000
SGLT-2i	-	9 (13.00)	4 (15.40)	1.000	-	-	1.000
DPP-4i	-	3 (4.30)	2 (7.70)	0.604	-	-	0.604
Insulin	-	10 (14.50)	17 (65.40)	< 0.001^b	-	-	< 0.001^b
GLP-1Ra	-	6 (8.70)	2 (7.70)	1.000	-	-	1.000

^aP < 0.05.

^bP < 0.01.

Data are presented as median (interquartile range). The groups were compared using Wilcoxon rank sum test. Monte Carlo method for testing exact significance (P). P1: Healthy control vs type 2 diabetes mellitus; P2: Healthy control vs diabetic gastric autonomic neuropathy; P3: Type 2 diabetes mellitus vs diabetic gastric autonomic neuropathy. T2DM: Type 2 diabetes mellitus; HC: Healthy control; DGAN: Diabetic gastric autonomic neuropathy; BMI: Body mass index; GI: Gastrointestinal; SBP: Systolic blood pressure; DBP: Diastolic blood pressure; Hb: Hemoglobin; PLT: Platelets; CRP: C-reactive protein; FBG: Fasting blood glucose; HbA1c: Hemoglobin A1c; FC-P: Fasting C-peptide; 2hC-P: 2-hour c-peptide; BUN: Blood urea nitrogen; SCr: Serum creatinine; eGFR: Estimated glomerular filtration rate; UACR: Urinary albumin-to-creatinine ratio; TG: Triglycerides; TC: Total cholesterol; LDL-C: Low-density lipoprotein cholesterol; HDL-C: High-density lipoprotein cholesterol; ALB: Albumin; ALT: Alanine aminotransferase; AST: Aspartate aminotransferase; TZDs: Thiazolidinediones; AGI: Alpha-glucosidase inhibitor; SGLT-2i: Sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 inhibitors; DPP-4i: Dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitor; GLP-1Ra: Glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonist; F: Female.

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Citation: Zhu KY, Wang SJ, Li J, Ma PP, Feng SS, Guo L, Lu YB, Dong L, Ding DF. Association of serum bile acid profiles with the risk of gastrointestinal autonomic neuropathy in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. World J Diabetes 2026; 17(2): 112859
URL: https://www.wjgnet.com/1948-9358/full/v17/i2/112859.htm
DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.4239/wjd.v17.i2.112859

Zhu KY, Wang SJ, Li J, Ma PP, Feng SS, Guo L, Lu YB, Dong L, Ding DF. Association of serum bile acid profiles with the risk of gastrointestinal autonomic neuropathy in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. World J Diabetes 2026; 17(2): 112859 [PMID: 41696092 DOI: 10.4239/wjd.v17.i2.112859]

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