Prebiotic, probiotic, and postbiotic properties of fermented corn starch and their application in type 2 diabetes management

Table 3 Postbiotic potentials of fermented corn starch in the management of type 2 diabetes

Postbiotic	Study model	Treatment	Antidiabetic mechanism	Ref.
SCFAs	Human clinical trial	High-fiber diet promoting SCFA-producing gut bacteria	SCFAs (acetate, propionate, and butyrate) improved glucose homeostasis by enhancing insulin sensitivity, stimulating the secretion of incretin hormones (GLP-1 and PYY), reducing inflammation, and modulating energy metabolism via the gut-brain axis	[68]
Lactic acid	In vivo	Steamed multigrain bread prepared from dough fermented with lactic acid bacteria	Improved oral glucose tolerance, increased liver glycogen, reduced triglyceride and insulin levels, and enhanced blood lipid profiles; the fermentation process enhanced the bread’s nutritional value and lowered its glycemic index, contributing to better glycemic control	[69]
EPS	In vivo	Administration of EPS isolated from Lactiplantibacillus plantarum JY039, either alone or combined with Lactiplantibacillus paracasei JY062	EPS enhanced the adhesion and proliferation of Lactiplantibacillus paracasei JY062, modulated gut microbiota composition by increasing beneficial bacteria (e.g., Bifidobacterium, Faecalibaculum), improved intestinal barrier function, promoted secretion of gut hormones (GLP-1 and PYY), and reduced inflammation by balancing pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines	[70]
Brevicin 174A	In vitro	Bacterial cultures; isolation from citrus iyo fruit-production and characterization of a two-polypeptide bacteriocin (brevicin 174A-β and 174A-γ)	Exhibited broad-spectrum antibacterial activity, including against pathogens like Listeria monocytogenes and Staphylococcus aureus; such activity contributed to gut microbiota modulation, which is associated with metabolic health benefits	[71]

SCFAs: Short-chain fatty acids; GLP-1: Glucagon-like peptide-1; PYY: Peptide YY; EPS: Exopolysaccharides.