Prebiotic, probiotic, and postbiotic properties of fermented corn starch and their application in type 2 diabetes management

Table 2 Probiotic potentials of isolated microorganisms from fermented corn starch in the management of type 2 diabetes

Microorganism	Strain	Study model	Treatment	Antidiabetic mechanism	Ref.
Lactiplantibacillus	Lactiplantibacillus brevis	In vitro	Cell-free culture supernatant and whole-cell assay	Produced bacteriocin-like substances that suppress pathogens, tolerated acidic, and bile conditions, supported gut microbial diversity, linked to improved insulin sensitivity	[57]
	Lactiplantibacillus fermentum (MCC2759)	In vivo	Oral administration of 109 CFU/mL daily for 4-8 weeks	Improved glucose tolerance, increased plasma insulin levels, reduced inflammation, enhanced intestinal barrier integrity (ZO-1), upregulated anti-inflammatory IL-10, and improved insulin sensitivity markers (GLUT-4, GLP-1, adiponectin)	[58]
	Lactiplantibacillus plantarum	In vitro	Application of live bacterial cells to epithelial cells	Enhanced intestinal barrier by upregulating tight junction proteins (occludin, claudin-1, ZO-1), improving TEER and reducing permeability	[59]
Leuconostoc	Leuconostoc mesenteroides EH-1	In vivo	Oral administration of Leuconostoc mesenteroides EH-1 fermented product rich in butyric acid	Increased butyric acid production activated Ffar2, leading to improved insulin secretion and lower blood glucose levels	[60]
Bifidobacterium	Bifidobacterium longum WHH2270	In vivo	Oral administration of Bifidobacterium longum WHH2270	Modulated gut microbiota composition, enhanced insulin sensitivity, reduced blood glucose levels, and decreased inflammation	[61]
	Bifidobacterium bifidum	In vivo	Oral administration of a probiotic mixture containing Bifidobacterium bifidum, Bifidobacterium longum, Bifidobacterium infantis, and Bifidobacterium animalis for 5 weeks	Improved insulin resistance and glucose tolerance; increased adiponectin mRNA expression; decreased IL-6 and MCP-1 mRNA expression, indicating reduced inflammation and enhanced insulin sensitivity	[62]
	Bifidobacterium breve	In vivo	Oral administration of Bifidobacterium breve (50 × 109 CFU/day) for 12 weeks	Improved glycemic control (reduced HbA1c and fasting blood sugar), improved lipid profile (reduced LDL-C and triglycerides), and modulation of gut microbiota composition	[62]
Saccharomyces	Saccharomyces cerevisiae	In vitro	Chromosomal integration and expression of exendin-4 peptide	Exendin-4 acted as a GLP-1 receptor agonist, enhancing insulin secretion and improving glycemic control	[63]

ZO-1: Zonula occludens-1; IL-10: Interleukin-10; GLUT-4: Glucose transporter type 4; GLP-1: Glucagon-like peptide-1; TEER: Trans-epithelial electrical resistance; Ffar2: Free fatty acid receptor 2; IL-6: Interleukin-6; MCP-1: Monocyte chemoattractant protein-1; HbA1c: Glycated hemoglobin A1c; LDL-C: Low-density lipoprotein cholesterol.