Curcumol targets the FTO/MAFG-AS1 axis to alleviate diabetic retinopathy via epigenetic remodeling and nanodelivery-based microenvironment modulation

Table 4 Comparison of nano-delivery systems applied in curcumol treatment

Delivery system	Composition	Mechanism of action	Retinal targeting efficiency	Advantages	Limitations
Conventional oral administration	Raw curcumol or tablets	Absorbed via gastrointestinal tract, systemic distribution	Very low; difficulty penetrating blood-retinal barrier	Convenient administration, high patient compliance	Low bioavailability, hepatic first-pass effect, insufficient retinal concentrations
Intravitreal injection	Curcumol solution	Direct ocular administration, high local concentration	High; direct targeting of retina	Rapid onset, high local drug concentration	Invasive procedure, risk of complications, repeated injections needed
PLGA nanoparticles	PLGA, curcumol	Controlled-release system, extends drug half-life	Moderate; passive targeting	FDA-approved, biodegradable, encapsulation efficiency > 90%	Complex preparation, batch-to-batch variability
Liposomes	Phospholipid bilayer, curcumol	Enhanced cell membrane fusion and uptake	Moderate; surface modifications possible for improved targeting	Can carry both hydrophilic and hydrophobic drugs	Limited stability, strict storage conditions
Macrophage membrane-coated nanoparticles	Macrophage membrane, polymer core, curcumol	Inherits homing capability and immune evasion of source cells	High; specific recognition via membrane surface proteins	Active targeting to inflammatory sites, prolonged retention	Complex preparation technology, challenging scale-up production
Dendrimers	Branched polymers, curcumol	High drug-loading capacity, controlled release	Moderate to high; modifiable with various targeting ligands	Precise branched structure, multifunctionality	Potential toxicity, poor biodegradability

FDA: Food and drug administration; PLGA: Poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid).