Electroacupuncture in glycemic control: Transitioning from clinical controversies to potential basic research

Table 3 Types of animals used in electroacupuncture for hypoglycemic research

Species	Diabetic state	Acupoints (bilateral or unilateral)	Frequency (Hz)	Duration	Current (mA)	Effect description	Mechanism research conclusion	Ref.
Rat	Type 1 diabetes (fasted)	Zusanli (ST36) (ST36, bilateral)	15	30-60 minutes	-	Reduces fasting blood sugar	Activates vagus nerve-liver axis: Enhances parasympathetic activity, promotes glycogen synthesis in liver and inhibits gluconeogenesis	[31]
	Type 1 diabetes (STZ induced)	Zusanli (ST36) (ST36, bilateral)	15	30/60 minutes	-	Enhances insulin signaling protein expression, significantly lowers blood sugar	Modulates IRS-1/AKT pathway: Stimulates vagus nerve to release acetylcholine, activating insulin signaling pathways in skeletal muscle and liver	[32]
	Type 2 diabetes (fasted)	Zusanli (ST36) (ST36, bilateral)	2	20 minutes	1	Reduces blood sugar	Inhibits hypothalamic inflammation: Modulates HPA axis, reduces corticosterone levels, alleviates inflammation and improves insulin resistance	[33]
	Type 2 diabetes (HFD + low-dose STZ induced)	Zusanli (ST36), Pishu (BL20), bilateral	15	30 minutes per session, once per day for 14 days	1	Significantly improves insulin sensitivity	Reshapes gut microbiota: Increases SCFA-producing bacteria, reduces LPS levels, alleviates systemic inflammation, improves insulin sensitivity	[25]
Mouse	Normal (fasted)	Zusanli (ST36), bilateral	15	30 minutes	-	Reduces blood sugar	Activates cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway: Enhances vagus nerve activity, inhibits splenic TNF-α release, reduces inflammation	[24]
	Type 2 diabetes (HFD)	Guanyuan (CV4) + Zhongwan (CV12), bilateral	3	30 minutes	-	Significantly lowers postprandial blood sugar	Activates cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway: Enhances vagus nerve activity, inhibits splenic TNF-α release, reduces inflammation	[34]
	Type 2 diabetes (STZ induced)	Zusanli (ST36), bilateral	10	30 minutes per day, for 8 weeks	1-3	Lowers random blood sugar and fasting blood sugar	Promotes β-cell regeneration: Modulates PINS, activates β-cell proliferation signals (e.g., PDX-1), inhibits pancreatic fibrosis	[2]

HPA: Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal; SCFA: Short-chain fatty acid; LPS: Lipopolysaccharide; TNF-α: Tumor necrosis factor alpha; PINS: Pancreatic intrinsic nerves; HFD: High-fat diet; IRS: Insulin receptor substrate; STZ: Streptozotocin.