Androgen receptor mutations in familial androgen insensitivity syndrome: A metabolic reprogramming pathway to type 2 diabetes susceptibility

Table 4 Metabolic surveillance parameters and assessment methods for androgen insensitivity syndrome patients

Monitoring parameter	Assessment method(s)	Purpose/clinical significance
Glucose tolerance	Fasting plasma glucose	Detect impaired glucose tolerance and stratify risk of T2DM
	OGTT
	HbA1c
Insulin resistance	HOMAIR = (fasting insulin × fasting glucose)	Quantifies insulin sensitivity (clamp technique is the gold standard)
	Hyperinsulinemic–euglycemic clamp
Lipid profile	Serum TG, LDL, HDL, etc.	Identifies dyslipidemia and gauges metabolicsyndrome risk
Body composition	BMI	Assesses degree of obesity and fat distribution
	Waisttohip ratio
	DXA for bodyfat percentage
Bone mineral density	DXA of axial skeleton	Monitors bone mass and helps prevent osteoporosis (particularly important after gonadectomy in AIS)
Lifestyle factors	Dietary pattern analysis	Complements metabolic risk assessment and guides targeted interventions
	Physicalactivity questionnaires

OGTT: Oral glucose tolerance test; HbA1c: Glycated hemoglobin; T2DM: Type 2 diabetes mellitus; HOMA-IR: Homeostatic model assessment of insulin resistance; AIS: Androgen insensitivity syndrome; TG: Triglycerides; BMI: Body mass index; DXA: Dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry; HDL: High-density lipoprotein; LDL: Low-density lipoprotein.