Dietary fiber intake and its association with diabetic kidney disease in American adults with diabetes: A cross-sectional study

Table 2 Association of covariates and diabetic kidney disease risk

Variables	OR (95%CI)	P value
Age (yr)	1.04 (1.04-1.05)	< 0.001
Sex, n (%)
Male	1 (reference)
Female	0.93 (0.84-1.03)	0.178
Race/ethnicity, n (%)
Non-Hispanic white	1 (reference)
Non-Hispanic black	1.11 (0.97-1.27)	0.115
Mexican American	0.80 (0.69-0.93)	0.003
Others	0.72 (0.62-0.83)	< 0.001
Educational level (yr), n (%)
< 9	1 (reference)
9-12	0.97 (0.84-1.12)	0.651
> 12	0.73 (0.63-0.85)	< 0.001
Marital status, n (%)
Married or living with a partner	1 (reference)
Living alone	1.45 (1.31-1.61)	< 0.001
Family income, n (%)
Low	1 (reference)
Medium	0.96 (0.85-1.08)	0.466
High	0.62 (0.54-0.72)	< 0.001
BMI (kg/m2)	1.00 (0.99-1.01)	0.605
Smoking status, n (%)
Never	1 (reference)
Former	1.34 (1.20-1.51)	< 0.001
Current	1.08 (0.93-1.25)	0.328
CHD, n (%)
No	1 (reference)
Yes	2.16 (1.82-2.56)	< 0.001
Hypertension, n (%)
No	1 (reference)
Yes	2.24 (2.00-2.52)	< 0.001
Calorie consumption (1000 kcal/d)	0.83 (0.78-0.89)	< 0.001
Protein consumption (g/1000 kcal/d)	1.00 (1.00-1.00)	0.965
Dietary fiber consumption (g/1000 kcal/d)	0.98 (0.97-0.99)	< 0.001
Dietary supplements taken, n (%)
No	1 (reference)
Yes	1.06 (0.95-1.17)	0.313
Family history of diabetes, n (%)
No	1 (reference)
Yes	1.04 (0.93-1.16)	0.487
Duration of diabetes (yr)	1.04 (1.03-1.04)	< 0.001
Insulin use, n (%)
No	1 (reference)
Yes	2.32 (2.03-2.64)	< 0.001
Glucose-lowering drugs use, n (%)
No	1 (reference)
Yes	1.03 (0.92-1.15)	0.576
HbA1c (%)	1.15 (1.11-1.18)	< 0.001
FPG (mmol/L)	1.06 (1.04-1.07)	< 0.001
FINS (μU/mL)	1.00 (1.00-1.00)	0.132
HOMA-IR	1.01 (1.00-1.01)	< 0.001
TC (mmol/L)	0.95 (0.91-0.99)	0.012
ALT (U/L)	1.00 (0.99-1.00)	0.019
AST (U/L)	1.00 (1.00-1.00)	0.816
SUA (µmol/L)	1.00 (1.00-1.01)	< 0.001
Hemoglobin (g/dL)	0.81 (0.79-0.84)	< 0.001

ALT: Alanine aminotransferase; AST: Aspartate aminotransferase; BMI: Body mass index; CHD: Coronary heart disease; FINS: Fasting plasma insulin; FPG: Fasting plasma glucose; HbA1c: Glycosylated hemoglobin; HOMA-IR: Homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance; SUA: Serum uric acid; TC: Total cholesterol.